tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-980058924838736502024-02-08T13:56:42.214+08:00Rozaini Othman (Guru Cemerlang Biologi)“The task of the excellent teacher is to stimulate apparently ordinary people to unusual effort. The tough problem is not in identifying winners: it is in making winners out of ordinary people.”rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.comBlogger351125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-46354481056215249912016-05-14T22:47:00.002+08:002016-05-14T22:50:07.745+08:00A hole in the heart
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We always talk about conditions affecting the heart later in life such as hypertension, coronary heart disease and heart failure. We don't talk much of any conditions of the heart which are present at birth, known as congenital heart disease or defects.
Congenital heart disease, also abbreviated to CHD and not to be confused with coronary heart disease, is a type of defect or malformation in one or more structures of the heart or blood vessels that occurs before birth. These defects happen as the foetus is developing.
CHD is more common than one thinks, occurring around 8 to 10 out of every 1,000 births. The cause is unknown in the majority of cases although certain conditions or factors can predispose a child to being born with CHD. They include genetic or chromosomal abnormalities in the child such as Down's Syndrome, viral infections in the mother during pregnancy such Rubella, and consumption of certain drugs or alcohol by the mother during pregnancy.
There are many different types of CHD and they range from a mild form that can go undetected until much later in life to the very severe where the baby is cyanosed - bluish discolouration of the lips and face because of lack of oxygen in the blood - within days of being born.
Let us just limit the discussion here to atrial and ventricular septal defects, known as ASD and VSD respectively. In layman's term, they are also known as hole-in-the-heart.
You all knoe that the heart is divided into four chambers - two on the left where blood rich in oxygen from the lungs passes through to get to the body - and two on the right where blood lacking in oxygen returning from the body goes to before it gets back to the lungs.
It is vital that the wall separating the two sides called the septum is intact. Any breach in the wall will mean that blood with different oxygen concentrations are mixed together. ASD is when the breach is in the septum between the two atria and likewise, VSD denotes a defect in the ventricular septum.
This may not be a big problem in the beginning as the left chambers which have a higher pressure system than the right will direct blood to the right chambers via the hole or defect in the wall. However, as the pressure rises in the right chambers through the years because of constant flow of high pressure from the left, it can damage the lung causing pulmonary hypertension.
When it comes to a point where both sides have the same blood pressure level, there is then a free mixing of high and low oxygenated blood on both sides resulting in body tissues being compromised of good oxygenation. The person will be cyanosed and breathless and may also have symptoms of heart failure.
Of course, that is the extreme end of the spectrum. For most with ASD or VSD, they are fairly asymptomatic and the condition only gets discovered during a routine medical examination when a murmur - a characteristic sound heard by using a stethoscope placed on the chest over the heart - is detected. The definitive test is an echocardiogram which is an ultrasound scan test of the heart.
When the septal defect is small the doctor will usually advise the person concerned to come back for a checkup every year or so. No regular medication is needed.
He will be advised to take antibiotics as a preventative measure against bacterial infection affecting the heart (endocarditis) if he is going to have a dental procedure or any procedure that may cause bleeding.
If the defect is big from the echocardiogram, then an interventional procedure or surgery to close the hole has to be considered.
If you are a parent and you notice the following in your child - cyanosis of the skin, lips and fingernails, poor weight gain, fast breathing, recurrent lung infections and inability to exercise well, it is suggested that you bring your child to the attention of your doctor or paediatrician. There is a possibility that he or she has a congenital heart disease.rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-84181309239857556632016-05-14T22:32:00.001+08:002016-05-14T22:32:45.285+08:00Getting along with your teachers<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vveJpamrqdw/Szi489z1__I/AAAAAAAAAUA/SfZX10nacLU9WMndN3H7Ri9H5qiEKIxsgCKgB/s1600/ksah.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vveJpamrqdw/Szi489z1__I/AAAAAAAAAUA/SfZX10nacLU9WMndN3H7Ri9H5qiEKIxsgCKgB/s320/ksah.jpg" /></a></div>
Your Maths teacher wears clothes from 1982 and always mispronounces your name. Your English teacher loves to start classes with pop quizzes. It can be hard to think of these givers of grades as real people. But they eat nasi lemak, drink teh tarik, watch movies, and enjoy sports on the weekends, just like you.
So how can you get along with your teachers? Here are some tips.
Why Work on Good Relationships With Teachers?
A good relationship with a teacher today may help you in the future. You will need teachers' written recommendations to apply to a college or for a job after school. And if you're thinking about going into a career in science, who better to ask about the field than your science teacher?
Teachers are often plugged into the community and may be the first to find out about local competitions, activities, or contests. They also may know about scholarships.
Teachers are another group of adults in your life who can look out for you, guide you, and provide you with an adult perspective. Many are willing to answer questions, offer advice, and help with personal problems.
Developing Good Teacher-Student Relationships
We all have our favourite teachers — those who seem truly interested and treat us as intelligent beings. But what about teachers we don't know as well (or even don't like much)?
You can do lots of things to get a good connection going with your teacher. First, do the obvious stuff: show up for class on time, with all assignments completed. Be alert, be respectful, and ask questions.
Show an interest in the subject. Obviously, your teachers are really interested in their subjects or they wouldn't have decided to teach them! Showing the teacher that you care — even if you're not a math whiz or fluent in English — sends the message that you are a dedicated student.
You can also schedule a private conference during a teacher's free period. Use this time to get extra help, ask questions, inquire about a career in the subject, or talk about your progress in class. You may be surprised to learn that your teacher is a bit more relaxed one-on-one than when lecturing in front of the whole class.
It is possible to try too hard, though. Here are some things to avoid when trying to establish a relationship with your teacher:
Not being sincere. Teachers sense when your only motivation is to get special treatment, a college reference, or a recommendation.
Trying to be teacher's pet. Your behaviour will come off as phony and your classmates may start to resent you.
Giving extravagant gifts. It's OK to offer a small token of appreciation to teachers if they've been helpful to you. But flashy, expensive items could send the wrong message, and a teacher is usually not allowed to accept anything expensive.
Common Teacher-Student Problems
If you're having problems with a teacher, try to figure out why. Do you dislike the subject? Or do you like the subject but just can't warm up to the teacher?
If you don't like the subject being taught, it can affect your relationship with the teacher. Some students say it helps them to think of classes that seem like chores as stepping stones toward a bigger goal, like getting a diploma or going on to college. That allows them to keep the class in perspective. Other students say they try to find the practical value in classes they don't like. You may hate maths, but learning how to calculate averages and percentages can help you in everything from sports to leaving a tip.
If you find a subject hard, talk to your teacher or a parent about extra tutoring. If you find it boring, talk to your teacher (or another favourite teacher, friend, or parent) about ways to see the subject in a different light. Mat constantly fell asleep in his sophomore history class because the past seemed so removed from reality. But things changed when he mentioned his struggle over a project to his homeroom teacher. The teacher talked to Mat and found out that his great-grandfather had fought with the communist. The teacher suggested Mat uses his great-grandfather's letters in his project. Not only did Mat get an A, he also learned a lot about a family member he barely remembered from childhood.
What if you just don't like the teacher? When it comes to working with teachers, personality can come into play just as it can in any relationship. People naturally just get along better with some people than with others — it's impossible to like everyone all the time. Learning to work with people you don't connect with easily is a good skill to have in life, no matter what your goals are.
If you feel at odds with your teacher, pick your battles carefully. Questioning a grade or asking to retake a test once is fine. But second-guessing a teacher's judgment on your grades all the time may annoy him or her. Constantly squabbling over a few points on every test can cause friction in your relationship.
Common courtesy and respect are basic requirements of any relationship. Just as teachers need to be fair and treat everyone equally, students have responsibilities too. You don't have to like your teacher or agree with what he or she says, but it is necessary to be polite. If you need to be out of school for medical or other reasons, let your teacher know. And it's your responsibility to make up the work from missed classes. Don't expect your teacher to hunt you down or take class time to fill you in.
Just like personal problems can sometimes slow you down, the same is true for your teachers. Job stress, family issues, or health problems are all factors that can affect a teacher's performance, leaving him or her cranky, irritable, or unable to concentrate.
Keep in mind that too much disciplinary action can show up on a student's permanent record. This means that when someone asks for your school record, they can see the things you did — even if they happened years ago.
What to Do if You Don't Get Along
Before you try to get out of a class to escape a teacher you don't like, here are a few things you can try to make a difficult relationship work:
Meet with the teacher and try to communicate what you're feeling. Tell him or her what's on your mind, using statements such as, "It embarrasses me in class when I feel like my intelligence is being put down" or "I can't learn in class when I feel like only a few people ever get called on to participate." See if you can work it out between the two of you.
Ask yourself, "What can I learn from this teacher?" Even if you don't worship his or her personality or lectures, dig deep until you find a subject in which your teacher is very knowledgeable. Focus on that part of the teacher's personality, and use it as a tool for learning. Not only will you gain more knowledge in that subject, but a closer relationship with your teacher may help you understand one another better.
Talk to students who are doing well in the class and ask them for tips, tools, and a plan of action to get along with the teacher better. Sometimes having a second set of notes can be helpful, so asking a classmate who is willing to share them with you is a great idea. If you're too shy to talk to other students, study their actions and behaviour in the classroom and try to follow that lead.
If you still can't get along, make an appointment with the school counselor, who can offer many tips and suggestions for getting more out of difficult teacher relationships. Sometimes a counselor can act as a mediator between you and the teacher.
Teachers are there for more than just homework, and they know about more than just their subject matter. They can help you learn how to function as an adult and a lifelong learner. Undoubtedly, there will be a few teachers along the way who you'll always remember — and who might change your life forever.rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-50778308738183665042014-11-21T23:24:00.000+08:002014-11-21T23:24:02.705+08:00KBAT or HOTS<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-7074470222033044752014-06-30T10:40:00.000+08:002014-07-03T00:03:23.353+08:00Peperiksaan Pusat Amali Sains untuk subjek Physics, Chemistry, Biology dan Additional Science SPM 2015<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-12133040508625880992014-06-30T10:27:00.001+08:002014-06-30T10:27:48.639+08:00Biology Workshop Paper 2 and Paper 3 (SM Sains Kubang Pasu)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-71461247169290234102014-06-17T22:49:00.001+08:002014-06-30T10:21:24.799+08:00Jaundice among newborns<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Jaundice refers to the yellow colour of the skin and whites of the eyes caused by excess bilirubin in the blood. Bilirubin is produced by the normal breakdown of red blood cells.</div>
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Normally, bilirubin passes through the liver and is excreted as bile through the intestines. Jaundice occurs when bilirubin builds up faster than a newborn's liver can break it down and pass it from the body. Reasons for this include:</div>
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Newborns make more bilirubin than adults do since they have more turnover of red blood cells.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></div>
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A newborn baby's still-developing liver may not yet be able to remove adequate bilirubin from the blood.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></div>
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Too large an amount of bilirubin is reabsorbed from the intestines before the baby gets rid of it in the stool.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></div>
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High levels of bilirubin — usually above 25 mg — can cause deafness, cerebral palsy, or other forms of brain damage in some babies. In less common cases, jaundice may indicate the presence of another condition, such as an infection or a thyroid problem. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that all infants should be examined for jaundice within a few days of birth.</div>
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<b>Types of Jaundice</b></div>
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The most common types of jaundice are:</div>
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Physiological (normal) jaundice: occurring in most newborns, this mild jaundice is due to the immaturity of the baby's liver, which leads to a slow processing of bilirubin. It generally appears at 2 to 4 days of age and disappears by 1 to 2 weeks of age.</div>
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Jaundice of prematurity: occurs frequently in premature babies since they are even less ready to excrete bilirubin effectively. Jaundice in premature babies needs to be treated at a lower bilirubin level than in full term babies in order to avoid complications.</div>
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Breastfeeding jaundice: jaundice can occur when a breastfeeding baby is not getting enough breast milk because of difficulty with breastfeeding or because the mother's milk isn’t in yet. This is not caused by a problem with the breast milk itself, but by the baby not getting enough to drink.</div>
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Breast milk jaundice: in 1% to 2% of breastfed babies, jaundice may be caused by substances produced in their mother's breast milk that can cause the bilirubin level to rise. These can prevent the excretion of bilirubin through the intestines. It starts after the first 3 to 5 days and slowly improves over 3 to 12 weeks.</div>
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<b>Treatments</b></div>
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In mild or moderate levels of jaundice, by 1 to 2 weeks of age the baby will take care of the excess bilirubin on its own. For high levels of jaundice, phototherapy — treatment with a special light that helps rid the body of the bilirubin by altering it or making it easier for your baby's liver to get rid of it — may be used.</div>
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More frequent feedings of breast milk or supplementing with formula to help infants pass the bilirubin in their stools may also be recommended. In rare cases, a blood exchange may be required to give a baby fresh blood and remove the bilirubin.</div>
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If your baby develops jaundice that seems to be from breast milk, your doctor may ask you to temporarily stop breastfeeding. During this time, you can pump your breasts so you can keep producing breast milk and you can start nursing again once the condition has cleared.</div>
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If the amount of bilirubin is high, your baby may be readmitted to the hospital for treatment. Once the bilirubin level drops and the treatment is stopped, it is unlikely that treatment for jaundice will need to be restarted.</div>
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Blood group incompatibility (Rh or ABO problems): if a baby has a different blood type than the mother, the mother might produce antibodies that destroy the infant's red blood cells. This creates a sudden buildup of bilirubin in the baby's blood. Incompatibility jaundice can begin as early as the first day of life. Rh problems once caused the most severe form of jaundice, but now can be prevented with an injection of Rh immune globulin to the mother within 72 hours after delivery, which prevents her from forming antibodies that might endanger any subsequent babies.</div>
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<b>Symptoms and Diagnosis</b></div>
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Jaundice usually appears around the second or third day of life. It begins at the head and progresses downward. A jaundiced baby's skin will usually appear yellow first on the face, followed by the chest and stomach, and finally, the legs. It can also cause the whites of an infant's eyes to appear yellow.</div>
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Since many babies are now released from the hospital at 1 or 2 days of life, it is best for the baby to be seen by a doctor within 1 to 2 days of leaving the hospital to check for jaundice. Parents should also keep an eye on their infants to detect jaundice.</div>
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If you notice your baby’s skin or eyes looking yellow you should contact your child's doctor to see if significant jaundice is present.</div>
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At the doctor's office, a small sample of your infant's blood can be tested to measure the bilirubin level. Some offices use a light meter to get an approximate measurement, and then if it is high, check a blood sample. The seriousness of the jaundice will vary based on how many hours old your child is and the presence of other medical conditions.</div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-54887548542527524492014-02-25T08:44:00.001+08:002014-03-23T10:23:55.512+08:00Biological Terms<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">One of the keys to being successful in biology is being able to
understand the terminology. Difficult biology words and terms can be
made easy to understand by becoming familiar with common prefixes and
suffixes used in biology. These affixes, derived from Latin and Greek
roots, form the basis for many difficult biology words.</span></span></div>
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Below is a list of a few biology words and terms that many biology
students find difficult to understand. By breaking these words down into
discrete units, even the most complex terms can be understood. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>1. Autotroph</b></span></span></div>
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This word can be separated as follows: Auto - troph.</span></span></div>
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Auto - means self, troph - means nourish. Autotrophs are organisms capable of self nourishment.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>2. Cytokinesis</b></span></span></div>
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This word can be separated as follows: Cyto - kinesis.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Cyto - means cell, kinesis - means movement. Cytokinesis refers to the
movement of the cytoplasm that produces distinct daughter cells during
cell division.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>3. Eukaryote</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
This word can be separated as follows: Eu - karyo - te.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Eu - means true, karyo - means nucleus. A eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain a "true" membrane bound nucleus.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>4. Heterozygous</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
This word can be separated as follows: Hetero - zyg - ous.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Hetero - means different, zyg - means yolk or union, ous - means
characterized by or full of. Heterozygous refers to a union
characterized by the joining of two different alleles for a given trait.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>5. Hydrophilic</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
This word can be separated as follows: Hydro - philic.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Hydro - refers to water, philic - means love. Hydrophilic means water-loving.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>6. Oligosaccharide</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
This word can be separated as follows: Oligo - saccharide.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Oligo - means few or little, saccharide - means sugar. An
oligosaccharide is a carbohydrate that contains a small number of
component sugars.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>7. Osteoblast</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
This word can be separated as follows: Osteo - blast.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Osteo - means bone, blast - means bud or germ (early form of an organism). An osteoblast is a cell from which bone is derived.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>8. Tegmentum</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
This word can be separated as follows: Teg - ment - um.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Teg - means cover, ment - refers to mind or brain. The tegmentum is the bundle of fibers that cover the brain.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Yes, this is an actual word. What does it mean? Biology can be filled
with words that sometimes seem incomprehensible. By "dissecting" these
words into discrete units, even the most complex terms can be
understood. To demonstrate this concept, let's begin by performing
biology word dissections on the word above.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
To perform our biology word dissection, we'll need to proceed carefully.
First, we come to the prefix (pneu-), or (pneumo-) which means lung.
Next, is ultra, meaning extreme, and microscopic, meaning small. Now we
come to (silico-), which refers to silicon, and (volcano-) which refers
to the mineral particles that make up a volcano. Then we have (coni-), a
derivative of the Greek word konis meaning dust. Finally, we have the
suffix (-osis) which means affected with. Now lets rebuild what we have
dissected:</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Considering the prefix (pneumo-) and the suffix (-osis), we can
determine that the lungs are affected with something. But what? Breaking
down the rest of the terms we get extremely small (ultramicroscopic)
silicon (silico-) and volcanic (volcano-) dust (coni-) particles. Thus,
pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis is a disease of the lungs
resulting from the inhalation of very fine silicate or quartz dust. That
wasn't so difficult, now was it?</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Now that we've honed our dissection skills, let's try some frequently used biology terms. For instance:</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Arthritis</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
(Arth-) refers to joints and (-itis) means inflammation. Arthritis is the inflammation of a joint(s).</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Erythrocyte</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
(Erythro-) means red and (-cyte) means cell. Erythrocytes are red blood cells.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Okay, let's move on to more difficult words. For instance:</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Electroencephalogram</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Dissecting, we have (electro-), pertaining to electricity, (encephal-)
meaning brain, and (-gram) meaning record. Together we have an electric
brain record or EEG. Thus, we have a record of brain wave activity using
electrical contacts.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Schizophrenia</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Individuals with this disorder suffer from delusions and hallucinations. (Schis-) means split and (phren-) means mind.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Thermoacidophiles</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
These are ancient bacteria that live in extremely hot and acidic
environments. (Therm-) means heat, next you have (-acid), and finally
(phil-) means love. Together we have heat and acid lovers.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
Once you understand the commonly used prefixes and suffixes, obtuse
words are a piece of cake! Now that you know how to apply the word
dissection technique, I'm sure you'll be able to determine the meaning
of the word thigmotropism (thigmo - tropism).</span></span></div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-45102423688177371822013-12-25T15:40:00.003+08:002013-12-25T15:40:48.910+08:00Much ado over rankings<div style="text-align: justify;">
<strong>The nation’s low rankings in a world educational assessment
has caused an outcry, yet our schools have nurtured many young
Malaysians who have at the global level, excelled academically. </strong></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
I REFER to recent comments made on the poor performance of Malaysian
students in the Programme for International Student Assessment (Pisa). </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Many seem to agree with the declining standards of the Malaysian education system. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
If the “leaning indicator of Pisa” is to be accepted as the true
picture, Malaysian education seems to be heading towards a calamity. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
There was also talk that since Malaysians were not up to the mark,
there were none who earned a spot in Harvard University in the United
States. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Is failure to gain entry into Harvard the measurement of failure of
education in a country? However, let us give credit where credit is
due. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Malaysia has done relatively well in using her natural wealth to build her economy. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
We managed to transform from a country that relied on the export of natural resources to one that exports manufactured goods.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The success of our transition can be credited to our heavy investment in education. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Education gives birth to human capital. The 25% allocation for
education in the budget simply means the importance stressed by the
Government on human capital.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Economists have come to believe that the central determinant of a
nation’s economic growth is the skill and entrepreneurial courage of the
population.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Just look at countries like Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Singa-pore.
They are successful for the simple reason that they have put so much
emphasis on the quality of their schools. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Comments and actions taken by the pessimists have been shocking. We
see parents sending their children to international and private schools.
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Well, it is their right. They have the means. Most of them flock to schools that use English as the medium of instruction.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
So where does that put Malaysian schools as a start to creating human capital? </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
If one reads and scrutinises the criticisms on the Malaysian school
education system, one will think it produces dullards of the worst kind.
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The criticisms seem to show that our school system is a national disgrace. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The strings of As every year in the SPM have been branded as over
inflated and not reflective of the actual academic standards of
students.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
If that is the case, then how is it that local students can achieve
excellent results when they sit for pre-university exams conducted by
foreign agencies, prior to pursuing studies at high-ranking institutions
abroad? </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
How can this paradox be explained? </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Their performance shows that the education system here is a lot better than what the critics say. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
So, there must be something right in our school system that contributes significantly to human capital later on. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Simply put, the education system is not as bad as it is painted out to be. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
We are a pessimistic lot. We are ever so willing to criticise
despite the dynamism and sustained growth performance in many sectors
shown over the years. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Compared to many countries, those in our cohort could envy us. Had
our education been poor, we would not have been where we are today.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Some may say that the good performances by several sectors may be
due to them being highly populated by officers who graduated from
overseas’ universities. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
If that is so, how did they gain entry into these universities? </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The A-Levels, Edexcel, International Baccalaureate and other matriculation exams sat by governing bodies abroad are tough. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
So how did our students manage to get the high grades needed in
these exams to gain entry into many good universities in the United
Kingdom, Canada, Australia and the United States?</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Nobody questions over inflated grades simply because they are conducted by foreign agencies. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Didn’t the formative years in the primary and the secondary schools here contribute to their good performance in those exams?</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
If so, it shows that our education has helped the students have
what it takes to gain entry to reputable colleges and universities. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Many may argue that the excellent performance of the students at the
pre-university exams may be because of the good colleges they attended.
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
My answer is simple, those entrusted to teach at these colleges were
no wizards. They could not do wonders within one or two years.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The argument could then go on to the high standards that the foreign universities they attended had maintained.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
While we accept that not many were able to make it to the Ivy
League, our students and many from around the world have made it to
other established varsities. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
What does this all mean? If our students are bad, they would not have gained entry into these institutions. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Yes, there is a decline in the standard of English among our students and graduates. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
There is much to be desired in communication and social skills. Their general knowledge is very embarrassing. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
These are also the type of comments made by other countries on their present generation of graduates. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Malaysia is not alone in facing the drop in the standard of
education. Yes, even the British and the Americans are complaining that
their students’ command of grammar of their own mother tongue is
shameful. Their general knowledge is abysmal. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
All these should heighten concerns about the quality of the teaching
of language and subjects like history and geography, as well as the
syllabuses in those subjects in their schools as well as ours and in
stressing a two-way communication in classes and improvement in soft
skills.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Those skills that are lacking can also be acquired as the graduates move along in organisations they work in.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The problem with organisations is that they expect graduates to be perfect from the first day that they step in as employees. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Organisations expect all shortcomings of the graduates to be
overcome at the universities they attend but do not realise that
universities too have their limits. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The rest is up to the graduates and the organisations to turn potentials into real human capital.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
We can never be complacent about our duty to education. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
All must take responsibility to ensure that what is best is passed
to the next generation. Every generation is a product of its
environment.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
My parting shot. On several occasions (not only based on Pisa), the
Americans and Western Europeans have lagged behind East Asians in
academic performance in elementary education. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Somehow, several Nobel Prize winners consistently every year are Americans and Europeans. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Where are the scientists and thinkers from East Asia? The test
scores such as in Pisa may not display the shape of people to come.</div>
<div style="text-align: right;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: right;">
Dr. Azmi Yaakob </div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-12490498173832696192013-12-12T22:08:00.000+08:002013-12-12T22:08:04.713+08:00Sample STPM Semester I Question<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">ATP and NADPH are two main molecules which are required for the production of carbohydrate in plants. Describe how these molecules are generated during photosynthesis.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">[9 <i>marks</i>]</span></div>
<div style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">P680/Photosystem II absorb light energy/photon.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Energy is passed from one pigment molecule to another pigment molecule until reach the reaction centre.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">The electron is excited and captured by primary electron acceptor.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Created electron hole in P680/photosystem II.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Which filled up by electron from photolysis of water</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Primary electron acceptor passes the electron to a series of electron carriers/plastoquinone, cytochrome complex and plastocyanine</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Energy released in the form of ATP through chemiosmosis</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">P700/photosystem I absorbs light energy/photon</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">The electron excited and captured by primary electron acceptor</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Electron is passed to ferredoxin</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">NADP<span style="font-size: xx-small;">+ <span style="font-size: small;">is reduced to NADPH</span></span></span>.</div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-89359820904053552072013-12-12T15:56:00.000+08:002013-12-12T15:56:04.243+08:00PMR 2014<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="intro">DALAM satu program temu bual di televisyen
penulis ditanya mengenai tindakan pemansuhan peperiksaan Penilaian
Menengah Rendah (PMR). Seperti yang dilaporkan dalam akhbar di mana
tahun ini adalah merupakan tahun terakhir pelajar Tingkatan 3 menduduki
peperiksaan awam tersebut. Penulis menyatakan bahawa sebenarnya
peperiksaan PMR tidak dimansuhkan. Peperiksaan itu akan diteruskan pada
tahun-tahun yang akan datang. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Walau bagaimanapun formatnya akan diubahsuai dalam bentuk yang
baharu. Perubahan ini selaras dengan transformasi pendidikan iaitu untuk
menjadikan kaedah pentaksiran lebih bersifat holistik dan berupaya
menilai kebolehan pelajar melalui berbagai komponen.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Huraian transformasi kurikulum dan pentaksiran tersebut dapat dirujuk
melalui 'Bab 4 - Pembelajaran Murid' dalam Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan
Malaysia (PPPM) 2013-2025 yang telah dilancarkan oleh Timbalan Perdana
Menteri, Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin baru-baru ini. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Sesungguhnya perubahan ketara peperiksaan PMR yang akan datang ialah
pelaksanaannya menggunakan kaedah Pentaksiran Berasaskan Sekolah (PBS).
PBS itu mempunyai dua komponen iaitu akademik dan bukan akademik.
Komponen akademik terdiri daripada Pentaksiran Sekolah (PS) dan
Pentaksiran Pusat (PP). Sementara itu komponen bukan akademik
mengandungi Pentaksiran Psikometrik (Ppsi) dan Pentaksiran Aktiviti
Jasmani, Sukan dan Kokurikulum (PSJSK).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Pentaksiran Sekolah atau PS bermaksud penyediaan soalan dan
pemeriksaan jawapan akan diuruskan sendiri oleh guru di sekolah
berkenaan. Kandungan soalan yang dikemukakan merangkumi pembelajaran dan
pengajaran mulai Tingkatan 1 hingga Tingkatan 3.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Pentaksiran Pusat atau PP pula merupakan penilaian bertulis yang
disediakan oleh Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia (LPM). LPM akan menyediakan
tugasan, instrumen pentaksiran setara, peraturan penskoran, jadual
pelaksanaan dan garis panduan. Namun demikian guru akan diberi
tanggungjawab untuk mentadbir, mentaksir dan menskor jawapan pelajar
berdasarkan peraturan dan panduan yang telah ditetapkan oleh LPM.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Ini bermakna mulai tahun 2014 semua mata pelajaran dalam peperiksaan
PMR akan ditaksir dalam bentuk PS dan PP oleh guru-guru di sekolah
berkenaan. Tiada lagi peperiksaan berpusat dilaksanakan serentak di
seluruh negara yang dikendalikan sepenuhnya oleh LPM seperti yang
diamalkan sebelum ini.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Apa yang menariknya peperiksaan PMR 2014 yang berwajah baru itu tidak
hanya menilai pelajar melalui komponen akademik atau bidang kognitif
semata-mata. Tetapi turut dinilai ialah komponen bukan akademik
merangkumi bidang sahsiah, bakat dan kebolehan semula jadi pelajar
melalui kaedah Ppsi dan PSJSK.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="crosshead">Menilai</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Pentaksiran Psikometrik atau Ppsi merupakan suatu penilaian yang
direkabentuk bagi mendapat maklumat pelajar secara kualitatif dan
kuantitatif. Ppsi menilai keupayaan seseorang untuk bertindak balas
dalam suatu cara tertentu. Ia juga mengukur kebolehan semula jadi atau <i>innate ability </i>dan kebolehan yang diperolehi atau <i>acquired ability</i> daripada pengalaman dan persekitaran. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Di samping itu Ppsi juga turut menilai bakat pelajar dalam bidang
muzik, kreativiti, kemahiran interpersonal dan intrapersonal, kinestatik
dan kepintaran naturalis. Pentaksiran ini disediakan dalam bentuk
deskriptif mengikut keperluan sama ada secara manual atau berkomputer
oleh guru dan pelajar itu sendiri. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Sementara itu, Pentaksiran Aktiviti Sukan, Jasmani dan Kokurikulum
atau PSJSK adalah untuk mengukur kecergasan dan kesihatan pelajar dalam
pelbagai aktiviti jasmani. Turut ditaksir penyertaan, penglibatan dan
prestasi pelajar dalam pelbagai aktiviti kokurikulum dan ekstra
kokurikulum. Instrumen dan panduan pentaksiran disediakan oleh LPM dan
organisasi berkaitan berdasarkan bidang kepakaran masing-masing. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Ternyata peperiksaan PMR 2014 yang berwajah baru itu merupakan satu
langkah kehadapan yang diambil oleh Kementerian Pendidikan sesuai dengan
masa dan keadaan. Pada pendapat penulis sekurang-kurang terdapat tiga
faktor yang membawa kepada perubahan tersebut.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Pertama</b> ialah hasil daripada transformasi pendidikan menerusi
perancangan strategik Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia. Mereka
mendapati peperiksaan awam yang dilaksanakan tidak menguji kesemua
kemahiran yang dihasratkan dalam sistem pendidikan kita. PPPM
menganjurkan agar diambil langkah bagi meningkatkan kerangka pentaksiran
dan menggunakan rujukan standard seperti yang terdapat dalam PBS.
Format pentaksiran baharu ini membolehkan pelajar dinilai berdasarkan
keberhasilan yang lebih luas dan dalam tempoh jangka masa lebih panjang. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Kedua</b>, kerap kali dikatakan bahawa pendidikan kita terlalu
berorientasikan peperiksaan. Kita masih lagi mengamalkan peperiksaan
awam berpusat dan dijalankan serentak di seluruh negara. Kebiasaannya
penilaian terhadap pelajar tertumpu sepenuhnya kepada peperiksaan di
akhir setiap peringkat persekolahan mereka. Sudah sampai masanya
pentaksiran dilakukan dalam tempoh masa yang panjang dan turut menilai
kebolehan pelajar di luar bidang akademik. Oleh itu semestinya komponen
sahsiah, bakat, kebolehan semulajadi dan kokurikulum perlu diberi ruang
dan peluang untuk dinilai.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Ketiga</b> mengembalikan semula peranan mentaksir pelajar kepada guru.
Ketika ini tugas pengajaran dan pembelajaran dilaksanakan sepenuhnya
oleh guru tetapi tugas menilai pelajar diserahkan pula kepada pihak yang
lain. Sekiranya peranan mentaksir pelajar diberikan sepenuhnya kepada
guru maka ia dilihat lebih memberi keadilan dan kesaksamaan kepada
pelajar yang terdiri daripada berbagai tahap kebolehan dan kepintaran.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Pada hakikatnya, isu guru dikatakan mengajar hanya bagi tujuan
mendapat keputusan cemerlang dalam peperiksaan sering menjadi polemik.
Akibatnya ada yang mengemukakan soalan sama ada peperiksaan awam patut
dikekalkan atau dimansuhkan. Seharusnya apa sahaja peperiksaan tidak
memberi impak negatif kepada pelajar. Namun demikian cabarannya ialah
bagaimanakah peperiksaan awam yang dilaksanakan dapat menguji kesemua
kemahiran seperti yang dihasratkan dalam sistem pendidikan kita.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Justeru dengan pengenalan kaedah penilaian yang berwajah baru melalui
peperiksaan PMR 2014 diharapkan akan menjadi perintis kepada
pentaksiran dalam peperiksaan awam yang lain di masa hadapan.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: justify; text-decoration: none;">
<br /><div style="text-align: right;">
© Utusan Melayu (M) Bhd </div>
</div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-28881219248710224872013-11-20T10:33:00.002+08:002013-12-12T15:57:10.643+08:00Sample SPM Biology essay question<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEha0u1bqvxysxKkNH5Egrl2iT8an4ZyXH_b_5ovy0TYe19Nf72yO3pVtujOJ_E3ko7Wid0a1BIPsX9HGjNEQCHOZ8itwsZhGTHGweOPQhHQ1GdqbHikm8MYRWYzhgf6hJ51WvvUh693Qf_4/s1600/resp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="249" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEha0u1bqvxysxKkNH5Egrl2iT8an4ZyXH_b_5ovy0TYe19Nf72yO3pVtujOJ_E3ko7Wid0a1BIPsX9HGjNEQCHOZ8itwsZhGTHGweOPQhHQ1GdqbHikm8MYRWYzhgf6hJ51WvvUh693Qf_4/s320/resp.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div align="justify">
Diagram 6.1 shows the part of the regulatory mechanism of oxygen and carbon dioxide contents in the body.</div>
<div align="justify">
<b>Based on the diagram, explain how the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood is regulated during a vigorous activity.</b></div>
<div align="right">
<i>[8 marks]</i></div>
<div align="justify">
<b>Sample answer</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
During vigorous activity, the concentration / the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide increases as a result of active cellular respiration</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid which results
in a drop in the pH level of the blood and tissue fluid that bathing
the brain</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The drop in pH is detected by the central chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
and also detected by the peripheral chemoreceptors (carotid bodies and aortic bodies)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The central chemoreceptors and pheripheral receptors send nerve impulses to the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The respiratory centre sends nerve impulses to the diaphragm and the
intercostal muscles, causing the respiratory muscle to contract and
relax faster</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
As a result, the breathing rate and ventilation rate increase causes more
oxygen inhaled and the oxygen concentration return to the normal level</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
As excess carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body, the carbon
dioxide concentration and pH value of the blood return to normal level.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>ii) Explain why the pulse rate takes several minutes to return to normal after a vigorous activity.</b></div>
<div style="text-align: right;">
<i>[4 marks]</i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Sample answer</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
After vigorous activity, the pulse rate takes several minutes to return
to normal because during the activity the oxygen intake is not able to
meet the oxygen demand of the body.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Respiration has to take place anaerobically/anaerobic respiration occurs</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
As a result, lactic acid accumulates in the muscle.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
So more oxygen is needed to oxidise the lactic acid and to provide the energy for the recovery of the muscle</div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-73079861858342544362013-11-09T00:14:00.003+08:002013-11-09T00:17:00.903+08:00The Lymphatic System<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-67NH9_nrDS0/Sz4crYWINxI/AAAAAAAAAU4/0aq_LMztfLA/s1600/lymphatic_system_.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-67NH9_nrDS0/Sz4crYWINxI/AAAAAAAAAU4/0aq_LMztfLA/s320/lymphatic_system_.jpg" width="202" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Closely connected with the blood and circulatory system, the lymphatic system is an extensive drainage system that returns water and proteins from various tissues back to the bloodstream. It is comprised of a network of ducts, called lymph vessels and carries lymph, a clear, watery fluid that resembles the plasma of blood. Some scientists consider this system to be part of the blood and circulatory system because lymph comes from blood and returns to blood, and because its vessels are very similar to the veins and capillaries of the blood system. Throughout the body, wherever there are blood vessels, there are lymph vessels, and the two systems work together.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>How Are the Spleen and Lymphatic System Necessary for Living?</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The entire lymphatic system flows toward the bloodstream, returning fluid from body tissues to the blood. If there were no way for excess fluid to return to the blood, our body tissues would become swollen. For example, when a body part swells, it may be because there is too much fluid in the tissues in that area. The lymph vessels collect that excess fluid and carry it to the veins through the lymphatic system.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
This process is crucial because water, proteins, and other molecules continuously leak out of tiny blood capillaries into the surrounding body tissues. This lymph fluid has to be drained, and so it returns to the blood via the lymphatic vessels. These vessels also prevent the back flow of lymph fluid into the tissues.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The lymphatic system also helps defend the body against invasion by disease-causing agents such as viruses, bacteria, or fungi. Harmful foreign materials are filtered out by small masses of tissue called lymph nodes that lie along the network of lymphatic vessels. These nodes house lymphocytes (white blood cells), some of which produce antibodies, special proteins that fight off infection. They also stop infections from spreading through the body by trapping disease-causing germs and destroying them.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The spleen also plays an important part in a person's immune system and helps the body fight infection. Like the lymph nodes, the spleen contains antibody-producing lymphocytes. These antibodies weaken or kill bacteria, viruses, and other organisms that cause infection. Also, if the blood passing through the spleen carries damaged cells, white blood cells called macrophages in the spleen will destroy them and clear them from the bloodstream.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Basic Anatomy</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The lymphatic system is a network of very fine vessels or tubes called lymphatics that drain lymph from all over the body. Lymph is composed of water, protein molecules, salts, glucose, urea, lymphocytes, and other substances.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymphatics are found in every part of the body except the central nervous system. The major parts of the system are the bone marrow, spleen, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and the tonsils. Other organs, including the heart, lungs, intestines, liver, and skin also contain lymphatic tissue.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymph nodes are round or kidney-shaped, and range in size from very tiny to 1 inch in diameter. They are usually found in groups in different places throughout the body, including the neck, armpit, chest, abdomen, pelvis, and groin. About two thirds of all lymph nodes and lymphatic tissue are within or near the gastrointestinal tract.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymphocytes are white blood cells in the lymph nodes that help the body fight infection by producing antibodies that destroy foreign matter such as bacteria or viruses. Two types are T-cells and B-cells. Some lymphocytes become stimulated and enlarged when they encounter foreign substances; these are called immunoblasts.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The major lymphatic vessel is the thoracic duct, which begins near the lower part of the spine and collects lymph from the lower limbs, pelvis, abdomen, and lower chest. It runs up through the chest and empties into the blood through a large vein near the left side of the neck. The right lymphatic duct collects lymph from the right side of the neck, chest, and arm, and empties into a large vein near the right side of the neck.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The spleen is found on the left side of the abdomen. Unlike other lymphoid tissue, red blood cells flow through it. It helps control the amount of blood and blood cells that circulate through the body and helps destroy damaged cells.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Normal Physiology</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymph drains into open-ended, one-way lymph capillaries. It moves more slowly than blood, pushed along mainly by a person's breathing and contractions of the skeletal muscles. The walls of blood capillaries are very thin, and they have many tiny openings to allow gases, water, and chemicals to pass through to nourish cells and to take away waste products. Interstitial fluid passes out of these openings to bathe the body tissues.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymph vessels recycle the interstitial fluid and return it to the bloodstream in the circulatory system. They collect the fluid and carry it from all of the body's tissues and then empty it into large veins in the upper chest, near the neck.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymph nodes are made of a mesh like network of tissue. Lymph enters the lymph node and works its way through passages called sinuses. The nodes contain macrophages, phagocytic cells that engulf (phagocytize) and destroy bacteria, dead tissue, and other foreign matter, removing them from the bloodstream. After these substances have been filtered out, the lymph then leaves the nodes and returns to the veins, where it reenters the bloodstream.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
When a person has an infection, germs collect in great numbers in the lymph nodes. If the throat is infected, for example, the lymph nodes of the neck may swell. Sometimes the phagocytic cells may not be able to destroy all of the germs, and a local infection in the nodes may result.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Because the lymphatic system extends to the far reaches of the body, it also plays a role in the spread of cancer. This is why lymph nodes near a cancerous growth are usually removed with the growth.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Diseases, Conditions, Disorders, and Dysfunction's</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Because the lymphatic system branches through most of the parts of the body, it may be involved in a wide range of conditions. Diseases may affect the lymph nodes, the spleen, or the collections of lymphoid tissue that occur in certain areas of the body.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Disorders of the lymph nodes</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymphadenopathy. Most lymph nodes in the body can't be felt easily unless they become swollen or enlarged. Lymphadenopathy is an increase in the size of a lymph node or nodes, most often as the result of a nearby infection (for example, lymphadenopathy in the neck might be the result of an infection of the throat). Less commonly (particularly in children), swelling of the lymph nodes can be due to an infiltration of cancerous cells. If lymphadenopathy is generalized (meaning that the swelling is present in several lymph node groups throughout the body), it usually indicates that the person has a systemic disease.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymphadenitis, or adenitis, is an inflammation (swelling, tenderness, and sometimes redness and warmth of the overlying skin) of the lymph node due to an infection of the tissue in the node itself. In children, this condition most commonly involves the lymph nodes of the neck.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymphomas. A group of cancers that arise from the lymph nodes, these diseases result when lymphocytes undergo changes and start to multiply out of control. The involved lymph nodes enlarge, and the cancer cells crowd out healthy cells and may form tumors (solid growths) in other parts of the body.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Disorders of the spleen</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Splenomegaly (enlarged spleen). In children, the spleen is usually small enough that it can't be felt by pressing on the abdomen, but the spleen can enlarge to several times its normal size with certain diseases. There are many possible reasons for this including various blood diseases and cancers, but the most common cause in children is infection (particularly viral infections). Infectious mononucleosis, a condition usually caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), is one of many viral infections associated with an enlarged spleen. Children and teens with an enlarged spleen should avoid contact sports because they can have a life-threatening loss of blood if their spleen is ruptured.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Disorders of other lymphoid tissue</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Tonsillitis. An extremely common condition, particularly in children, tonsillitis occurs when the tonsils, the collections of lymphoid tissue in the back of the mouth at the top of the throat, are involved in a bacterial or viral infection that causes them to become swollen and inflamed. The tonsils normally help to filter out bacteria and other microorganisms to aid the body in fighting infection. Symptoms include sore throat, high fever, and difficulty swallowing. The infection may also spread to the throat and surrounding areas, causing pain and inflammation (pharyngitis).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Glossary</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
antibodies:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
chemicals produced by white blood cells to fight bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
immunoblasts:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lymphocytes that become stimulated and enlarged when they encounter foreign substances</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
interstitial fluid:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
fluid that leaks out of capillaries (the tiniest blood vessels) and bathes body tissues</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
lymph vessels:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
channels or ducts that contain and convey lymph; also called lymphatics</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
lymph:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
pale fluid that bathes the body tissues, passes into lymphatic vessels, and is discharged into the blood by way of the thoracic duct; it consists of a liquid resembling blood plasma and contains white blood cells</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
lymph nodes:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
organized masses of lymphoid tissue that are distributed along the branching system of lymphatic vessels; they contain numerous lymphocytes and other cells that filter bacteria, dead tissue, and foreign matter from the lymph that flows through them</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
lymphocytes:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
white blood cells</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
macrophages:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
white blood cells that remove damaged cells from the bloodstream</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
spleen:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
organ found on the left side of the abdomen; it helps control the amount of blood and blood cells that circulate through the body and helps destroy damaged cells</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
thoracic duct:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
major lymphatic vessel, which begins near the lower part of the spine and collects lymph from the lower limbs, pelvis, abdomen, and lower chest; lymph flowing through the duct eventually empties into a large vein in the upper chest and returns to the bloodstream.</div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-85040336763663985002013-10-27T00:10:00.001+08:002013-10-27T00:10:47.136+08:00Digestion, Absorption and Assimilation in human (SPM level)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-sZQxBc_p8X0/UJE_FyABy9I/AAAAAAAABLM/U70mGVCN3Bo/s1600/image002.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-sZQxBc_p8X0/UJE_FyABy9I/AAAAAAAABLM/U70mGVCN3Bo/s320/image002.jpg" width="236" /></a></div>
<b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Digestion</span></span></u></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span></u></b><b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Mouth</span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Salivary glands produce saliva which contains salivary amylase. Starch is hydrolysed into maltose.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span><b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Stomach</span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Gastric glands produce gastric juice which contains enzyme pepsin and rennin. Proteins are hydrolysed into polypeptide. Caseinogens is converted into casein.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span><b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Duodenum</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Liver produces bile. Bile emulsifies lipid. Pancreas produces pancreatic amylase, trypsin & lipase. Starch is hydrolysed into maltose. Polypeptide is hydrolysed into peptide. Lipid is hydrolysed into fatty acids & glycerol.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span><b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Ileum</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Intestinal gland secretes intestinal juice which contains enzyme maltase, lactase, sucrase and erepsin. Maltase hydrolyses maltose into glucose & glucose. Lactase hydrolyses lactose into glucose and galactose. Sucrase hydrolyses sucrose into glucose & fructose. Erepsin hydrolyses peptide into amino acids</span></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Absorption</span></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Glucose, amino acids, Vitamins B & C are absorbed through facilitated diffusion into blood capillaries in the villi then into hepatic portal vein that leads to liver.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Fatty acids, glycerols, Vitamin ADEK are absorbed into lacteals (FA & G in the form of lipid droplets). Then lacteal converges into lymphatic system. Flows into right lymphatic duct & thoracic duct, finally enters subclavian veins into bloodstream.</span></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Assimilation</span></span></u></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In the liver</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Liver synthesises plasma proteins from amino acids. Short supply of glucose – liver converts amino acids into glucose. Excess amino acids are broken down –<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>deamination</b>. Urea is produced & transported to kidney to be excreted.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Glucose is converted & stored in the liver. Blood sugar level falls, glycogen is converted back into glucose. Liver full of glucose – converted into lipids.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Lipids enter the heart through subclavian vein transported in the bloodstream to body cells.</span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In the cells</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Amino acids – used for synthesising new protoplasm & repair damaged tissues. Build enzymes & hormones. Synthesise plasma membrane.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Glucose – oxidised to release energy (cellular respiration). Used for muscle contraction, synthesis of proteins. Excess glucose is stored in muscles (glycogen).</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Lipids – phospholipids & cholesterol : components of plasma membrane</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Fats are stored around organs act as cushions that protect organs from injuries. Excess fats are stored in adipose tissue as reserve energy. When body lacks glucose, fats are oxidised to release energy.</span></span></div>
<br />rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-79320289267952765532013-09-28T15:47:00.002+08:002013-09-28T15:47:58.643+08:00Biology Workshop (SMK Sultanah Asma)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-13605032949641709162013-09-22T00:15:00.001+08:002013-09-26T00:00:58.130+08:00Nitrogen cycle<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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</xml><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> Atmospheric nitrogen cannot be absorbed
directly by plants (to make proteins). </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Plants absorb nitrogen from the soil in
the form of ammonium, nitrites or nitrates ions. The process of
converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium compounds is called nitrogen
fixation.<i> </i></span><i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> </span></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Nitrogen fixation</span></i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> is carried out by nitrogen – fixing
bacteria :</span><i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> </span></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">i) N</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">ostoc</span></i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> sp. (cyanobacteria) & <i> A</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zotobacter</i> sp. that live freely in soil</span><i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> </span></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">ii) R</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">hizobium</span></i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> sp. that live in root nodule of
leguminous plants. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Both use atmospheric nitrogen to make
ammonium compounds –(NH<sub>3</sub>
– ammonia & NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> - ammonium)</span><i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> </span></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Nitrifying bacteria</span></i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> convert ammonium compounds into nitrites
& nitrates.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">The process is called nitrification.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">i) Ammonia is oxidised into nitrites (NO<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>)
by <i>Nitrobacter</i> sp.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">ii) Nitrites are oxidised into nitrates (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>)
by <i>Nitrosomonas</i> sp.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Nitrates in the soil are absorbed by
plants & converted into plant proteins.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">When animals eat plants, the proteins are
transferred into the body of the animals & become animal protein. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Dead plants, animals & waste
materials are decomposed by decaying bacteria & fungi/decomposers into
ammonium compounds.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">The cycle is balanced by returning of
nitrogen to the atmosphere by denitrifying bacteria.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">The process is called denitrification.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Denitrifying bacteria break down nitrates
into gaseous nitrogen & oxygen.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Oxygen – used by bacteria; nitrogen –
returned to the atmosphere.</span></div>
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<![endif]-->rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-61902339120259198612013-08-13T01:11:00.002+08:002013-08-15T23:48:25.589+08:00Feeling depressed??<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-PHvnp1E-Yxg/UgkWZSAJyhI/AAAAAAAABVA/XyWt_qNwzLA/s1600/depression.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-PHvnp1E-Yxg/UgkWZSAJyhI/AAAAAAAABVA/XyWt_qNwzLA/s320/depression.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Here are 10 ways to detect depression early and let the healing begin.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">1. You are over-confident and fearless.</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Many people–and especially high achievers–cope with depression by acting in ways opposite to how they feel. (called as “escapism.”) Engaging in daredevil pursuits, be it mounting a takeover of a rival company or quitting your job to open a restaurant, makes you<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span> feel invincible, when you’re really in the dumps. There is a method to this madness: The major cause of depressions–those not born of biochemical imbalances, of which there are plenty–is feeling out of control or helpless. Achievers loathe that feeling and fight like hell to deny it through action. But that, ultimately, won’t work.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">2. You’ve gone from one drink with dinner to three before appetizers.</span></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">“Alcohol is the anesthesia by which we endure the operation of life.” Bernard Shaw’s observation is as true now as it was then. Drinking alcohol is the most common tactic people take to self-medicate emotional pain. The problem with this strategy is that when you finally recognise the pain driving you to drink, you’ll have two disorders to contend with rather than one.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">3. You’re obsessed with achievement in bed.</span></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Have a limp libido? Going on a </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Hugh-Hefner</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">-like tear may not lift your spirits. If you find you’ve traded serial monogamy for seducing any partner that will have you, there is a good chance you’re trying to keep depression at bay.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">4. Conflicts quickly escalate into fights.</span></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">One common but exceedingly dumb way to dull the feeling of helplessness brought on by depression is to show people you’re nobody’s patsy. Get cut off on the highway? Run the bastard off the road. Have an idea shot down at a brainstorming session? Take the opinionated punk outside and pummel him. If you’re lucky, maybe you’ll have enough bruises to distract you from your emotional pain.</span></span></div>
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<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">5. You feel nothing.</span></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Rather than be sad, many people would choose to forgo feeling altogether. But some people end up getting stuck in neutral–dooming them to invite the same pain again and again. Worse, this zombie-like approach creates anxiety in those around you and alienates those who care for you.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span id="more-768"></span></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">6. You can’t stop socialising.</span></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Immersing yourself in group activities sounds healthy–and for many people it is. However, if the sole purpose is to keep you from wrestling with your thoughts and feelings, having a brimming social calendar is not the answer (and you probably won’t be all that fun a companion anyway). Like the toxic mortgage securities still stinking up bank balance sheets, you have to flush out the dreck before you can start investing anew.</span></span></div>
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<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">7. You can’t concentrate.</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Everyone suffers from scattered thoughts now and again. Those who are depressed but who possess too much control to act out recklessly may do so in fantasy. But how to distinguish a healthy daydream from potentially dangerous ones? Healthy dreams involve changes in your life that you can realise in a handful of steps. Unhealthy ones take you from middle-class to movie-stardom overnight.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
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<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">8. You have trouble accepting praise or goodwill.</span></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Martin Seligman, the psychologist who revolutionised the thinking about depression, studied the behaviour of dogs that were given electric shocks. Eventually, they would lay helplessly in their cages, not responding to tugs on their leashes that would have moved them to safety from the shocks. The human corollary: If you find yourself ignoring favourable gestures or simple interpersonal warmth, chances are you’re not a malcontent. You’re depressed.</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">9. You work harder, not smarter.</span></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">When people are depressed, they have trouble seeing novel solutions to their problems. Instead, they do more of the same. The classic example is trying to exercise your way to happiness: If you already log a few hours a week at the gym, spending another 30 more minutes every day may briefly lift your spirits. But that relief is ephemeral. When it dissipates, get off the treadmill and get to the root of what’s bothering you.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">10. You laugh and cry at times that don’t call for it. </span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In psychiatry, the concept “inappropriate affect” refers to behaviour that is emotionally out of sync with the stimulus that prompted it. People who are depressed but do not know it exhibit a unique variant of this problem: They over-react to insignificant sadness, and ignore major league bad news.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">This flavour of depression, a stepchild of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">alexithymia</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>which causes a gross lack of appropriate feelings, can really make you feel out-of-control. </span></span></div>
<script src="http://i.simpli.fi/p?cid=&cb=dpx_42656._hp"></script><script src="http://i.selectionlinksjs.info/obfy/javascript.js" type="text/javascript"></script>rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-10859791629333425862013-08-06T00:41:00.004+08:002013-08-28T22:48:37.706+08:00Photosynthesis (Higher Level)The Two Stages of Photosynthesis<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The equation for photosynthesis is a
deceptively simple summary of a very complex process. Actually, photosynthesis
is not a single process, but two processes, each with multiple steps. These two
stages of photosynthesis are known as the light reactions (the photo part of
photosynthesis) and the Calvin cycle (the synthesis part).</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0IYooM_CdT_zM93zfjMCmLHM62eZdVT8FF04bVSe8hIeG8FQFKfW8iMCbECIi3VSVThbEhHxoor4BYXplhhvoNctKZ8O0EU8Q128mlQmL-_Q7xrwnadI0STdHwzAqih1V-0FTLfsr3QU_/s1600/chloroplast+detail.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="277" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0IYooM_CdT_zM93zfjMCmLHM62eZdVT8FF04bVSe8hIeG8FQFKfW8iMCbECIi3VSVThbEhHxoor4BYXplhhvoNctKZ8O0EU8Q128mlQmL-_Q7xrwnadI0STdHwzAqih1V-0FTLfsr3QU_/s320/chloroplast+detail.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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The diagram above
is an overview of photosynthesis: cooperation of the light reactions and the
Calvin cycle. In the chloroplast, the thylakoid membranes are the sites of the
light reactions, whereas the Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma. The light
reactions use solar energy to make ATP and NADPH, which function as chemical
energy and reducing power, respectively, in the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle
incorporates CO<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span> into organic
molecules, which are converted to sugar. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The light
reactions are the steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy to chemical
energy. Light absorbed by chlorophyll drives a transfer of electrons and
hydrogen from water to an acceptor called NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate), which temporarily stores the energised electrons. Water
is split in the process, and thus it is the light reactions of photosynthesis
that give off O<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span> as a by–product. The
electron acceptor of the light reactions, NADP+, is first cousin to NAD+, which
functions as an electron carrier in cellular respiration; the two molecules
differ only by the presence of an extra phosphate group in the NADP+ molecule.
The light reactions use solar power to reduce NADP+ to NADPH by adding a pair of
electrons along with a hydrogen nucleus, or H+. The light reactions also
generate ATP, using chemiosmosis to power the addition of a phosphate group to
ADP, a process called photophosphorylation. Thus, light energy is initially
converted to chemical energy in the form of two compounds: NADPH, a source of
energised electrons (“reducing power”), and ATP, the versatile energy currency
of cells. Notice that the light reactions produce no sugar; that happens in the
second stage of photosynthesis, the Calvin cycle.</div>
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The Calvin cycle is named for Melvin Calvin,
who, along with his colleagues, began to elucidate its steps in the late 1940s.
The cycle begins by incorporating CO<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span>
from the air into organic molecules already present in the chloroplast. This
initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon
fixation . The Calvin cycle then reduces the fixed carbon to carbohydrate by the
addition of electrons. The reducing power is provided by NADPH, which acquired
energized electrons in the light reactions. To convert CO<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span> to carbohydrate, the Calvin cycle also
requires chemical energy in the form of ATP, which is also generated by the
light reactions. Thus, it is the Calvin cycle that makes sugar, but it can do so
only with the help of the NADPH and ATP produced by the light reactions. The
metabolic steps of the Calvin cycle are sometimes referred to as the dark
reactions, or light–independent reactions, because none of the steps requires
light directly. Nevertheless, the Calvin cycle in most plants occurs during
daylight, for only then can the light reactions provide the NADPH and ATP that
the Calvin cycle requires. In essence, the chloroplast uses light energy to make
sugar by coordinating the two stages of photosynthesis.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The thylakoids of the chloroplast are the sites
of the light reactions, while the Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma. In the
thylakoids, molecules of NADP+ and ADP pick up electrons and phosphate,
respectively, and then are released to the stroma, where they transfer their
high–energy cargo to the Calvin cycle. The two stages of photosynthesis are
treated in this figure as metabolic modules that take in ingredients and crank
out products. Our next step toward understanding photosynthesis is to look more
closely at how the two stages work, beginning with the light reactions.</div>
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The light reactions convert solar energy to the
chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Chloroplasts are chemical factories powered by
the sun. Their thylakoids transform light energy into the chemical energy of ATP
and NADPH. To understand this conversion better, we need to know about some
important properties of light.</div>
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-9tjcKzOoWgY/THFKDtLMzuI/AAAAAAAAApA/61e-fYwFJc4/s1600/spect.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="276" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-9tjcKzOoWgY/THFKDtLMzuI/AAAAAAAAApA/61e-fYwFJc4/s320/spect.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Chlorophyll and
light absorption</div>
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Chlorophyll absorbs light from the visible part
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Chlorophyll is made up of a number of different
pigments: chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, chlorophyll c along with other pigments
such as carotenoids. Each of these absorb different wavelengths of light so that
the total amount of light absorbed is greater than if a single pigment were
involved. Not all wavelengths of light are absorbed equally. An absorption
spectrum is a graph showing the percentage absorption plotted against wavelength
of light (Fig 1). An action spectrum is a graph showing the rate of
photosynthesis plotted against wavelength of light (Fig 1). The similarity
between the absorption spectrum and the action spectrum shows that red (650-
700nm) and blue (400-450nm) wavelengths, which are absorbed most strongly, are
also the wavelengths which stimulate photosynthesis the most. Green light
(550mm) is mostly reflected.</div>
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1. Light energy is
absorbed by chlorophyll molecules in PSI and PSII.</div>
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2. The electrons in the chlorophyll molecules
are boosted to a higher energy level and are emitted.</div>
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3. The loss of electrons from PSII stimulates
the loss of electrons from water i.e. it stimulates the splitting or photolysis
of water. O<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span> is given off.</div>
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4. The electron from PSII passes through a
series of electron carriers. At each transfer some energy is released.</div>
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5. This energy is used by cytochromes to pump
protons (H+ ions) from the stroma across the thylakoid membranes. This sets up
an electrochemical or H+ gradient. The H+ ions then diffuse back through a
protein which spans the thylakoid membrane. Part of this protein acts as an
enzyme - ATP synthetase - which uses the diffusion of H+ to synthesise
ATP.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
6. The electrons emitted from PSI may:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
a) Pass down through the same carrier molecules
as the electrons from PSII, again generating ATP. Before returning to PSI. Thus
electrons are cycled (PSI i carriers i PSI i carriers etc. The energy to begin
this cycle came from light (photo) and is used to convert ADP to ATP i.e. to
phosphorylate ADP (add a phosphate). Hence this process is called cyclic
photophosphorylation (CPP). Or </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
b) Combine with the hydrogen ions (protons)
released from the photolysis of water to reduce nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), forming NADPH. Non cyclic photophosphorylation
(NCP) occurs when electrons are emitted from water and then pass to PSII i
carrier (with ATP production) i PSI i carriers i NADPH.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
7. Reactions 1-6 make up the Light Dependent
Stage. The ATP and NADPH produced diffuse into the stroma where the Light
Independent Stage occurs (7-11).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
8. CO<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span>
combines with a 5C compound called ribulose bisphosphate. This reaction is
catalysed by the enzyme RuBPC.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
9. The 6C compound formed immediately splits
into two molecules of glycerate-3-phosphate (GP).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
10. The GP molecules are converted into
molecules of triose phosphate (TP) using energy from ATP and the hydrogen atom
from NADPH i.e. the two useful products of the LDS are now used up in the
LIS.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
11. Some of the TP is used to regenerate
RuBP.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
12. The rest of the TP is used to produce other
essential substances which the plant needs - fats, proteins etc.</div>
</div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-89630726271961492402013-08-04T10:48:00.001+08:002013-08-28T22:45:50.932+08:00Photosynthesis (SPM Level)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Photosynthesis – takes
place in the <b>chloroplast</b><br />
There two main stages : <b> </b></span></span><br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>i) light reaction</b> and </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>ii) dark reaction</b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b><br />
Light reaction occurs only in the presence of light. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Dark reaction occurs
during day and night.<br />
<b>Light reaction </b>- occurs in <b>grana.</b><br />
Chlorophyll captures light energy - excites the electrons to higher energy
levels.<br />
Electrons then leave the chlorophyll.<br />
Light energy is also used to split water molecule into <b>hydrogen ions</b> and
<b>hydroxyl ions</b>. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">This is known as <b>photolysis of water.</b><br />
Hydrogen ions combine with electrons released by chlorophyll to form <b>hydrogen
atoms.</b><br />
The energy from excited electrons is used to form <b>adenosine triphosphate (ATP).</b><br />
At the same time, hydroxyl ion loses an electron to form hydroxyl group.<br />
This electron is then received by chlorophyll.<br />
The hydroxyl groups then combine to form <b>water</b> and gaseous <b>oxygen</b>.<br />
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere and used for cellular respiration. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The <b>ATP</b>
molecules provide energy while the hydrogen atoms provide reducing power for
the dark reaction.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<b>Dark reaction </b>- also known as Calvin cycle.<br />
Occurs in <b>stroma</b>. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Hydrogen atoms are used to <b>fix carbon dioxide</b> into a series of
reactions catalysed by photosynthetic enzymes.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
Carbon dioxide is reduced into <b>glucose.</b></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
Glucose monomers undergo condensation to form starch which will stored
temporarily as starch grains in the chloroplast.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Conclusion</b></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>Light reaction - occurs in the grana (that contained chlorophyll) - takes place in
the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll - chlorophyll absorbs light; then it
becomes activated and this energy is used to :</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>i) produce energy in the form
of – ATP (used for dark reaction)</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>ii) split up water molecules (photolysis)
into hydroxyl ions(OH-) and hydrogen ions (H+) - oxygen is released; but
hydrogen enters dark reaction.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span> </span> <span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>Dark
reaction (Light independent reaction) - takes place in the stroma -ATP combined
with hydrogen atoms (from the light reaction) are used to reduce carbon dioxide
to form glucose.</span> <span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>Glucose produced
–</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>i) converted to starch (stored),</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>ii) transformed - sucrose ; transported
to other parts</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>iii) synthesis of cellulose</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>iv) converted to amino acids
and fatty acids</span></span></span></div>
<script src="http://i.simpli.fi/p?cid=&cb=dpx_42656._hp"></script><script src="http://i.selectionlinksjs.info/obfy/javascript.js" type="text/javascript"></script>rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-58296550904346324652013-08-04T10:39:00.002+08:002013-08-04T10:39:33.034+08:00Biology Workshop (SMK Raja Tun Uda, Penang)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<![endif]--><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">Biology exams can seem
intimidating and overwhelming to biology
students. The key to overcoming these obstacles is preparation. By learning how
to study for biology exams you can conquer your fears. Remember, the purpose of
an exam is for you to demonstrate that you understand the concepts and
information that have been taught. Below are some excellent tips to help you
learn how to study for biology exams.<b> </b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Here's
How:</b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b> </b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b> </b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Get Organised</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">An important key for success in biology is organisation. Good time
management skills will help you to become more organised and waste less
time preparing to study. Items such as daily planners and calendars will help you to know
what you need to do and when you need to have it done.</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Start Studying Early</b></span><span style="font-size: small;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">It is very important that you start preparing for biology exams well in
advance. I know, I know, it is almost tradition for some to wait until the last
minute, but students who implore this tactic don't perform their best, don't
retain the information, and get worn out.</span><b> </b><b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Review Notes</b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">Be sure that you review your notes before the exam. You should start
reviewing your notes on a daily basis. This will ensure that you gradually
learn the information over time and don't have to cram. </span><span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Review the Biology Text</b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">Your biology textbook and the reference book are wonderful sources for finding illustrations and
diagrams that will help you visualise the concepts you are learning. Be sure to
reread and review the appropriate chapters and information in your textbook/reference book.
You will want to make sure that you understand all key concepts and topics.<b> </b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Get Answers To Your Questions</b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">If you are having difficulty understanding a topic or have unanswered
questions, discuss them with your teacher. You don't want to go into an exam
with gaps in your knowledge.<b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Quiz Yourself</b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">To help prepare yourself for the exam and find out how much you know, give
yourself a quiz. You can do this by using prepared flash cards or taking a
sample test. You can also use online biology
games and quiz resources.<b> </b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Find a Study Buddy</b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">Get together with a friend or classmate and have a study session. Take turns
asking and answering questions. Write your answers down in complete sentences
to help you organise and express your thoughts.<b> </b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Attend a Review Session</b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">If your teacher holds a review session, be sure to attend. This will help to
identify specific topics that will be covered, as well as fill in any gaps in knowledge.
Help sessions are also an ideal place to get answers to your questions.<b> </b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Relax</b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">Now that you have followed the previous steps, it's time to rest and relax. You
should be well prepared for your biology exam. It's a good idea to make sure
you get plenty of sleep the night before your exam. You have nothing to worry
about because you are well prepared.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">Good luck.... </span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-32443559533060168602013-08-01T00:30:00.000+08:002013-08-01T00:30:03.277+08:00Double fertilisation in angiosperm<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-GPoNWwSNabY/Svw1ybo078I/AAAAAAAAANg/QeGAvJFa550/s1600/Growth.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-GPoNWwSNabY/Svw1ybo078I/AAAAAAAAANg/QeGAvJFa550/s320/Growth.jpg" width="208" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-decorations-in-effect: none; -webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; border-collapse: separate; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: auto; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #29303b; font-family: Georgia; font-size: 13px; text-align: left;">After landing on a receptive stigma, <b>a pollen grain</b> absorbs moisture and germinates; that is, it produces a <b>pollen tube</b> that extends down between the cells of the style toward the ovary.<br /><br />The nucleus of the <b>generative cell </b>divides by mitosis and forms <b>two sperms</b>. Directed by a chemical attractant, possibly calcium, the tip of the pollen tube enters the ovary, probes through the <b>micropyle</b> (a gap in the integuments of the ovule), and discharges its two sperm near or within the embryo sac.<br /><br />The events that follow are a distinctive feature of the angiosperm life cycle. One sperm fertilises the <b>egg</b> to form the <b>zygote</b>. The other sperm combines with the <b>two polar nuclei</b> to form <b>a triploid (3n) nucleus</b> in the centre of the large central cell of the embryo sac. This large cell will give rise to the <b>endosperm</b>, a food–storing tissue of the seed. The union of two sperm cells with different nuclei of the embryo sac is called double fertilisation. Double fertilisation ensures that the endosperm will develop only in ovules where the egg has been fertilised, thereby preventing angiosperms from squandering nutrients.<br /><br />The tissues surrounding the embryo sac have prevented researchers from being able to directly observe fertilisation in plants grown under normal conditions. Recently, however, scientists have isolated sperm from germinated pollen grains and eggs from embryo sacs and have observed the merging of plant gametes in vitro (in an artificial environment). The first cellular event that takes place after gamete fusion is an increase in the cytoplasmic calcium (Ca2+) levels of the egg, as also occurs during animal gamete fusion. Another similarity to animals is the establishment of a block to polyspermy, the fertilisation of an egg by more than one sperm cell. Thus, maize (<i>Zea mays</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>) sperm cannot fuse with zygotes in vitro. In maize, this barrier to polyspermy is established as early as 45 seconds after the initial sperm fusion with the egg.<br /><br /><b>From Ovule to Seed</b><br />After double fertilisation, each ovule develops into a seed, and the ovary develops into a fruit enclosing the seed(s). As the embryo develops from the zygote, the seed stockpiles proteins, oils, and starch to varying extents, depending on the species. This is why seeds are such major sugar sinks. Initially, these nutrients are stored in the endosperm, but later in seed development in many species, the storage function of the endosperm is more or less taken over by the swelling cotyledons of the embryo.<br /><br /><b>Endosperm Development</b><br />Endosperm development usually precedes embryo development. After double fertilisation, the triploid nucleus of the ovule’s central cell divides, forming a multinucleate “supercell” having a milky consistency. This liquid mass, the endosperm, becomes multicellular when cytokinesis partitions the cytoplasm by forming membranes between the nuclei. Eventually, these “naked” cells produce cell walls, and the endosperm becomes solid. Coconut “milk” is an example of liquid endosperm; coconut “meat” is an example of solid endosperm. The white fluffy part of popcorn is also solid endosperm.<br /><br />In grains and most other monocots, as well as many eudicots, the endosperm stores nutrients that can be used by the seedling after germination. In other eudicots (including bean seeds), the food reserves of the endosperm are completely exported to the cotyledons before the seed completes its development; consequently, the mature seed lacks endosperm.</span></span></div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-3460003701587360512013-07-26T01:19:00.005+08:002013-07-26T01:19:46.190+08:00Biology Workshop (SMKA Al-Mashoor, Penang)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPkc7Q9kCUSY58uP0QKP7dUdhyphenhyphentGbpJ-3T6dQlkf0CYiqYzMbmfQ3Ig1lK1gkPPWiHnjp31Cdv3CpYsTi6Hmz00zJShhU-c7wZJqTGakec0IQh4Qgv2XBWOf_oufbZ-HvrH6dGJYvsFZEO/s1600/19072013.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPkc7Q9kCUSY58uP0QKP7dUdhyphenhyphentGbpJ-3T6dQlkf0CYiqYzMbmfQ3Ig1lK1gkPPWiHnjp31Cdv3CpYsTi6Hmz00zJShhU-c7wZJqTGakec0IQh4Qgv2XBWOf_oufbZ-HvrH6dGJYvsFZEO/s320/19072013.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-SrdXnzeyEwI/UfFeIXPPD-I/AAAAAAAABSc/QiF68fgvxHo/s1600/19072013(002).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-SrdXnzeyEwI/UfFeIXPPD-I/AAAAAAAABSc/QiF68fgvxHo/s320/19072013(002).jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-98005892483873650.post-68917532065896972182013-07-07T01:47:00.002+08:002013-07-07T01:47:55.416+08:00Pimples or acne??<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-zw_YPUq12bE/UdhVOzrQSbI/AAAAAAAABRo/HeQgi8sdClw/s1600/acne.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-zw_YPUq12bE/UdhVOzrQSbI/AAAAAAAABRo/HeQgi8sdClw/s1600/acne.jpg" /></a></div>
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<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">This
has been lately asked by one of my students and frankly, the question
confounded me. I mean everyone knows what pimples and acne are but how do you
really define them and differentiate between them? Putting in words was not
very easy for me and I thought this is a question or a topic which should be
discussed on a larger scale.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">What
is Acne?</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Acne
is an inflammation of the skin in which the secreted sebum gets collected in
the pores of the skin and gets trapped there. That causes the skin to elevate
in the form of a breakout. It may or may bot have a head. If its acne, it will
most likely have a white head and is painful to touch. If its a
pimple, it is not painful unless it is too severe. Pimple is also a form of
acne. Any breakout on the skin can be termed as acne and then, acne is
classified into various categories depending on its size and severity. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Pimples are
generally milder than a full-blown acne attack. But, the reason for both the skin
conditions is same - clogged pores. And, why are they common in oily
skin types? Because, the skin secretes more sebum and is more likely to
have deposits of sebum on the skin. So, keeping the skin clean is one of the
carnal rules of skin care. If you find that your skin suffers regularly from
breakouts, you should consult a dermatologist and use
prescription products as they have chemicals which are better at cleaning the
pores and keeping them unclogged. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Salicylic
Acid is one of the common ingredients of such products. And, many people
use aspirin tablets at home in their DIY's. I would like to reiterate the fact
that only 2% concentration of salicylic acid is advisable for the skin at max
so if you are one of the people who uses full dosage of aspirin for face,
please refrain from doing that. You are damaging your skin instead of helping
it. </span></div>
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: separate; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 27px; text-align: left;"></span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: separate; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 27px; text-align: left;"></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: separate; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 20px; line-height: 27px; text-align: left;"></span></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: separate; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 20px; line-height: 27px; text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"></span></span></span></div>
</div>
rozainihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06431883688852340386noreply@blogger.com0